Dr. Steven L. Havens, Professor of Piano at College of DuPage

Posted on by

The Evolution of the Piano: From the Harpsichord and Clavichord to the Modern Piano

The history of the piano is deeply intertwined with the development of keyboard instruments over the centuries, primarily the harpsichord, clavichord, and fortepiano. Each of these instruments has its own unique characteristics that influenced how music was composed and performed. Understanding this evolution is essential for pianists seeking to interpret historical works with an accurate, stylistically informed approach.

1. The Clavichord (Early 15th Century)

  • Origin: The clavichord appeared around the early 15th century, particularly in Europe, and became more refined in the 16th century.
  • Mechanism: Unlike modern pianos, the clavichord produces sound through a mechanism where a small metal tangent strikes the strings, producing a soft, percussive sound.
  • Sound Characteristics: The clavichord is known for its delicate and intimate tone. It is not loud, and its dynamic range is limited but allows for expressive nuances such as bebung (a subtle vibrato effect created by pressing a key down and slightly moving it).
  • Repertoire: Early keyboard music, especially works by composers like Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Philipp Telemann, was often written with the clavichord in mind. The instrument’s subtle dynamics and expressive capabilities were perfect for creating intimate, personal music.
  • Performance Practice: When playing historical music written for clavichord, it’s crucial to focus on very subtle dynamic changes and a gentle, nuanced touch. Articulations such as legato and careful phrasing are essential to conveying the intimate style of the time.

2. The Harpsichord (16th Century)

  • Origin: The harpsichord evolved in the 16th century, drawing from earlier plucked instruments like the psaltery. By the 17th century, it became the primary keyboard instrument in Europe.
  • Mechanism: The harpsichord produces sound by plucking the strings with quills or plectra when the keys are pressed, giving it a bright, resonant sound. Unlike the clavichord and modern piano, the harpsichord has no ability to vary dynamic levels with the force of the touch.
  • Sound Characteristics: The harpsichord has a crisp, metallic sound, and its volume cannot be altered through touch alone. It relies on registration (stops) to alter the timbre.
  • Repertoire: The harpsichord was used for baroque music, notably by composers like Johann Sebastian Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, Georg Friedrich Handel, and François Couperin. Many of their works were written with the harpsichord’s limitations in mind, and ornamentation (trills, turns, etc.) was often a key part of interpretation.
  • Performance Practice: When playing on the harpsichord (or attempting to emulate its sound on a modern piano), it’s important to focus on clarity, sharp articulation, and avoiding excessive dynamic contrast. Historical practices like playing without the use of the pedal, focusing on articulation, and executing ornamentation accurately are key to a faithful interpretation of Baroque music.

3. The Fortepiano (18th Century)

  • Origin: The fortepiano was invented around 1700 by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Italy and became widely known by the late 18th century. It represented a breakthrough from the harpsichord’s plucked mechanism, using hammers to strike the strings.
  • Mechanism: The fortepiano’s ability to vary the dynamic level (due to its hammer mechanism) distinguished it from earlier keyboard instruments. This allowed for a range of dynamics from soft to loud (hence “forte” and “piano”), which gave rise to more expressive performances.
  • Sound Characteristics: The fortepiano has a more percussive tone compared to the modern piano, with less sustain and a brighter sound. The tone is more intimate and varied than the harpsichord, but it still differs from the modern piano’s sustained, full-bodied resonance.
  • Repertoire: Composers like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Joseph Haydn wrote extensively for the fortepiano. The instrument was central to the Classical and early Romantic periods.
  • Performance Practice: Pianists should aim for a light, crisp touch when playing fortepiano repertoire. The dynamic contrasts should be subtle, as the fortepiano has a much smaller dynamic range than the modern piano. Many Classical composers wrote music with an expectation of clarity and precision in articulation, and understanding the use of ornaments and stylistic phrasing is crucial.

4. The Modern Piano (19th Century to Present)

  • Origin: By the early 19th century, improvements made by Steinway, Erard, and other piano manufacturers led to the modern piano’s emergence. This instrument included larger frames, improved action, and a more refined soundboard, which resulted in a much richer, more sustained sound.
  • Mechanism: The modern piano’s action is much heavier, with the ability to produce a broad range of dynamics, from soft, delicate tones to powerful, thunderous sounds. It has pedals (sustain, soft, and sostenuto) which allow for a variety of tonal effects.
  • Sound Characteristics: The modern piano is known for its wide dynamic range, rich tonal variety, and long sustain. It is capable of sustaining notes for long durations and offers great flexibility in expression.
  • Repertoire: The Romantic and post-Romantic periods saw the piano flourish in both solo and orchestral works, with composers like Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, Johannes Brahms, Claude Debussy, and Sergei Rachmaninoff writing complex, virtuosic pieces for the modern instrument.
  • Performance Practice: Modern pianists are accustomed to the full dynamic range and pedal capabilities of the instrument. However, when performing historical music, they must make stylistic adjustments to account for the differences in sound production and performance practices of earlier instruments.

Making Stylistic Adjustments When Playing Historical Music

When performing historical music on a modern piano, a pianist must be aware of the different sound worlds that each instrument would have created. Here are some key considerations for achieving a historically informed performance:

1. Touch and Articulation

  • For earlier instruments, especially the harpsichord and clavichord, light touch and precise articulation are essential. Modern pianists should avoid over-pressing keys or creating overly legato phrases, as early keyboard music was often more detached and crisp.
  • For the fortepiano, the touch should still be relatively light, but dynamic range can be more varied compared to the harpsichord or clavichord. Avoid sustaining notes too long or using excessive pedal, as the fortepiano had limited sustain.
  • Modern pianos allow for more freedom of expression in terms of dynamics, but understanding when to emphasize lightness versus power is crucial. Romantic music often requires more weight and emotional depth, while earlier periods call for more clarity and subtlety.

2. Pedal Usage

  • The pedal (sustain pedal in particular) was not used in the same way for earlier instruments, and many composers from the Baroque and Classical periods did not intend for it to be used frequently. When playing these pieces on a modern piano, avoid overusing the sustain pedal and focus on clean articulation instead.
  • In Romantic music, pedal usage is more common and necessary to create a rich, legato sound. However, even in this period, the use of pedal should be controlled to maintain clarity.

3. Dynamics and Nuance

  • Instruments like the harpsichord and clavichord lacked the modern piano’s range of dynamics. As a result, historical performance practices often emphasized nuance over volume. Pianists should approach the music with a lighter touch, even if the modern piano allows for louder dynamics.
  • On a fortepiano, the dynamics would have been more limited, with a softer tone overall. A pianist should practice controlling the volume and focusing on subtle dynamic shifts.

4. Ornaments and Articulation

  • Ornamentation (like trills, turns, and mordents) was a significant part of keyboard music in the Baroque and Classical periods. These should be played with attention to period style, often with clarity and precision, but not over-embellished.
  • In Romantic music, rubato (flexible tempo) and more expansive phrasing are often called for, but historical ornamentation should still be maintained for works from earlier periods.

Conclusion

A pianist must adapt their approach depending on the historical context of the music and the instrument for which it was written. Understanding the distinctive features of the harpsichord, clavichord, fortepiano, and modern piano can help create more informed and stylistically appropriate interpretations. While the modern piano offers more expressive possibilities, adjusting touch, articulation, and pedal use can help bridge the gap between contemporary performance and historical accuracy. By doing so, pianists can bring the music of past centuries to life with authenticity, while respecting both the limitations and innovations of earlier instruments.